A major difference between recent literary theory and earlier critical approaches such as Russian Formalism, the New Criticism, and the first phase of French structuralism is that there has been a shift of emphasis towards the reader in much recent theory. In both reception theory (Rezeptionsästhetik) and reader-response criticism the role of the reader is seen as particularly crucial. Though reception theory has had its greatest impact in Germany and reader-response criticism is associated mainly with American criticism, there is some continuity between the two, particularly through the work of Wolfgang Iser, who is commonly included in both.